^i 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0   lif"^  is^ 


I.I 


m 

^        140 


2.2 

1.8 


11-25  i  1.4   i  1.6 


VI 


7 


'>/  ^^^ 


y 


>^ 


PhotDgraphic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  NY.  14580 

(716)  872-4503 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHM/ICMH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  de  microreproductions  historiques 


Technical  and  Bibliographic  Notes/Notes  techniques  et  bibliographiques 


The  Institute  has  attempted  to  obtain  the  best 
original  copy  available  for  filming.  Features  of  this 
copy  which  may  be  bibliographically  unique, 
which  may  alter  any  of  the  images  in  the 
reproduction,  or  which  may  significantly  change 
the  usual  method  of  filming,  are  checked  below. 


L'Institut  a  microfilm^  le  meilleur  exemplaire 
qu'il  lui  a  6t6  possible  de  se  procurer.  Les  ddtails 
de  cet  exemplaire  qui  sont  peut-dtre  uniques  du 
point  de  vue  bibliographique,  qui  peuvent  modifier 
une  image  reproduite,  ou  qui  peuvent  exiger  une 
modification  dans  la  m^thode  norma^e  de  filmaga 
sont  indiquds  ci-dessous. 


0 


D 


D 


D 
D 


D 


Coloured  covers/ 
Couverture  de  couleur 


I      I    Covers  damaged/ 


Couverture  endommag^e 


Covers  restored  and/or  laminated/ 
Couverture  restaurde  et/ou  pelliculie 


j      I    Cover  title  missing/ 


Le  titre  de  couverture  manque 


7]    Coloured  maps/ 

Cartes  g6ographiques  en  couleur 


Coloured  ink  (i.e.  other  than  blue  or  black)/ 
Encre  de  couleur  (i.e.  autre  que  bleue  ou  noire) 


r~1    Coloured  plates  and/or  illustrations/ 


Planches  et/ou  illustrations  en  couleur 

Bound  with  other  material/ 
Reli6  avec  d'autres  documents 

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along  interior  margin/ 

La  reliure  serrde  peut  causer  de  I'ombre  ou  de  la 
distortion  le  long  de  la  marge  int6rieure 

Blank  leaves  added  during  restoration  may 
appear  within  the  text.  Whenever  possible,  these 
have  been  omitted  from  filming/ 
II  se  peut  que  certaines  pages  blanches  ajouties 
lors  d'une  restauration  apparaissent  danR  le  texte, 
mais,  lorsque  cela  dtait  possible,  ces  pages  n'ont 
pas  6t6  fiimdes. 


I      I    Coloured  pages/ 


D 
D 
D 
D 
D 


D 
D 


Pages  de  couleur 

Pages  damaged/ 
Pages  endommag^es 

Pages  restored  and/or  laminated/ 
Pages  restaurdes  et/ou  pellicui6es 

Pages  discoloured,  stained  or  foxed/ 
Pages  d6color6es,  tachet^es  ou  piqudes 

Pages  detached/ 
Pages  ddtach^es 

Showthrough/ 
Transparence 


I      I    Quality  of  print  varies/ 


Quality  indgale  de  I'impression 

Includes  supplementary  material/ 
Comprend  du  materiel  suppl^mentaire 


Only  edition  available/ 
Seule  Edition  disponible 

Pages  wholly  or  partially  obscured  by  errata 
slips,  tissues,  etc..  have  been  refilmed  to 
ensure  the  best  possible  image/ 
Les  pages  totalement  ou  partiellement 
obscurcies  par  un  feuillft  d'errata,  une  pelure, 
etc.,  ont  6X6  filmdes  d  nouveau  de  fapon  d 
obtenir  la  meilleure  image  possible. 


D 


Additional  comments:/ 
Commentaires  suppl6mentairas: 


This  item  is  filmed  at  the  reduction  ratio  checked  below/ 

Ce  document  est  filmd  au  taux  de  rddiiftion  indiqu6  ci-dessous. 

10X  14X  iSX  22X 


26X 


y 

liX                            16X                             20X                             24X                            28X                            32X 

ails 

du 

idifier 

une 

nags 


The  copy  filmed  here  haa  been  reproduced  thanks 
to  the  generosity  of: 


Library  Division 

Provincial  Archives  of  British  Colunr^bia 


The  images  appearing  here  are  the  best  quality 
possible  considering  the  condition  and  legibility 
of  the  original  copy  and  in  keeping  with  the 
filming  contract  specifications. 


L'exemplaire  film6  fut  reproduit  grAce  A  la 
ginArositi  de: 

Library  Division 

Provincial  Archives  of  British  Columbia 

Le»  images  suivantes  ont  6tA  reproduites  avec  le 
plus  grand  soin,  compte  tenu  de  la  condition  et 
de  la  nettetA  de  l'exemplaire  film6.  et  en 
conformity  avec  les  conditions  du  contrat  da 
filmage. 


Original  copies  in  printed  paper  covers  are  filmed 
beginning  with  the  front  cover  and  ending  on 
the  last  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impres- 
sion, or  the  back  cover  when  appropriate.  All 
other  original  copies  are  filmed  beginning  on  the 
first  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impres- 
sion, and  ending  on  the  last  page  with  a  printed 
or  illustrated  impression. 


The  last  recorded  frame  on  each  microfiche 
shall  contain  the  symbol  — *>  (meaning  "CON- 
TINUED "),  or  the  symbol  V  (meaning   "END"), 
whichever  applies. 


Les  exemplaires  originaux  dont  la  couverture  en 
papier  est  imprimAe  sont  film6s  en  commenpant 
par  le  premier  plat  et  en  terminant  soit  par  la 
derniAre  page  qui  comporte  une  ampreinte 
d'impression  ou  d'illustration,  soit  par  le  second 
plat,  selon  le  cas.  Tous  les  autres  exemplaires 
originaux  sont  filmds  en  commengant  par  la 
premiere  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impression  ou  d'illustration  et  en  terminant  par 
la  dernidre  page  qui  comporte  une  telle 
empreinte. 

Un  des  symboles  suivants  apparaitra  sur  la 
dernidre  image  de  cheque  microfiche,  selon  le 
cas:  le  symbole  —^  signifie  "A  SUIVRE",  le 
symbole  V  signifie  "FIN". 


Maps,  plates,  charts,  etc.,  may  be  filmed  at 
different  reduction  ratios.  Those  too  large  to  be 
entirely  included  in  one  exposure  are  filmed 
beginning  in  the  upper  left  hand  corner,  left  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  as  many  frames  as 
required.  The  following  diagrams  illustrate  the 
mpthod: 


Les  cartes,  planches,  tableaux,  etc.,  peuvent  dtre 
film6s  A  des  taux  de  reduction  diffirents. 
Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grand  pour  dtre 
reproduit  en  un  seul  clich6,  il  est  filmd  A  partir 
de  Tangle  sup^rieur  gauche,  de  gauche  d  droite, 
et  de  haut  en  bas,  en  prenant  le  nombre 
d'images  n^cessaire.  Les  diagrammes  suivants 
illustrent  la  methods. 


rata 

3 


elure, 


3 


32X 


1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

1    S€»i3 


(sr 


''huMy/o 


No.  92. 


I/.  S  KAVf,  't. 

MAR  iQ3890 

MtlllihAHT'S  EXjDHAHGt 


: "   .1. 


ii£^AHCl^^ 


■^-<^:::^^^^(:;; 


P^K^t^OF^a 


OF 


ICE   AND    ICE    MOVEMENTS 


IX 


BY 


ENSIGN  EDWARD  SIMPSON,  U.  S.  N. 


UNDER  THE  DIRECTION  OF 


LIEl'TENANf  COMMANDER  CllAS.  H.  STOCKTON.  T.  S.  N. 
CoiiiiiiaDtling  11.  S.  S.  "Thetis." 


WASHINGTON  : 

U,  S.  Hydbogkaphic  Office. 

1890, 


iiaiilili 


iHHi 


g^^gg 


""  >  •-* ^^pai.>»  mf,f, 


.  '.(     <i  iy 


'  -     ■ 


No.  02. 


i«id:i^OFeu" 


OF 


ICE   AND    ICl^:    MOVEMENTS 


IN 


UY 


ENSIGN  EDWARD  SIMPSON,  U.  S.  N. 


UNDER  THE  DIUECTION  OF 


UM  TKNANT  COMMANDEI!  TIIAS  II  STOCKTON,  I!.  8.  N., 

i'oiiiiiiiindiii!;  li.  S.  S.  "  Tliclis." 


WASlI1N(iTON: 

U.   S.    llYDKOORAI'HlC  OlTUK 
1890. 


Rl 


U.  S.  IlYniKMiitAi'iiic  Offick, 

Wahiiinoton,  D.  C,  Jamuiry  ^,  1800. 

The  a(!Conipaiiying  atrount  of  Ice  and  Tc(>  Movements  in  Bering  S<'a 
and  the  Arctic  Basin  is  one  of  a  series  of  vahiable  rej)orts  received  from 
the  U.  S.  S.  Tfidls,  upon  the  completion  of  her  recent  cruise  in  those 
waters. 

Those  dealing  with  hydrographic  information  were  publishe<l  and  dis- 
tributed under  the  form  of  Notices  to  Marinei-s,  as  being  the  maniuM- 
l)est  calculated  tc  reach  the  maritime  community,  while  those  relating  to 
s|)ecial  subjectvS,  such  as  the  following,  whose  importiuicfe  to  navigators 
in  the  localities  mentioned  cannot  be  over-estimated,  will  appear  in 
pamphlet  form. 

Lieutenant  Commander  Stoc^kton,  and  officers  serving  with  him,  have 
greatly  contributed  to  our  knowledge  of  the  waters  and  coasts  of  North- 
western Alaska,  and  the  recent  cruis(>  of  the  Thcl'm  lias  been  as  remark- 
able as  it  luis  been  successful  in  its  residts. 

Henuv  F.  PicKiNc,  Cajdaln,  fL  S.  N., 

Utjdrofjra^ihcr, 

(8) 


REMARKS. 


In  onlcr  to  make  tlic  oriiisc  of  tho  V.  8.  S.  Thrfk,  during  the  sumtnol' 
of  1<SH!>,  in  tlic  walorH  of  Borinji  sea  and  the  Arctic  ocean  as  full  and 
as  useful  lus  [)ossil)!o,  I  directed  several  of  the  oHi('(!rs  of  the  Thdin  to 
observe  and  n'port  uj)on  various  suhjeets  connected  with  those  watei-s 
and  llu!  portions  of  NorthweHtern  Alaska  visite<l  by  us.  The  following 
ixiport  by  Kusign  Edward  Simpson  originatwl  in  that  manner. 

Cmas.  H.  Stockton, 

Lindcnanl  Coinmandcr,  (J.  ^.  N. 

',  '  __  "■  t        ■ 

U.  S.  S.  Tliclis,  (.If  Navy  Yanl,  Mar(>  Island,  '  '7 

JhTrmha-  7-%  ISS'.K 


(H) 


109713 


LETTER   OF   TRANSMITTAL. 


U.  S.  S.  "Thetis," 

Sitka,  Alaska,  Noveinhei'  IS,  1889. 

Sir: — In  olwHliriK'o  to  your  verluil  oixltM-  to  report  on  the  suhjcH't  of 
"Ice,"  as  it  is  found  in  Horinj;  wa  and  the  Arctic  (M-oan  in  the  viciniCy 
of  IJcrinj:;  strait,  and  C'S|)e('ially  with  rojiard  to  its  movcnicntH  under  the 
influen(!es  of  the  prevailing  currents  and  winds,  I  have  tlie  honor  to 
submit  the  following  report. 

In  making  this  report,  I  have  collectal  data  from  the  following 
sounds:  The  i-aptains  of  live  steam  whalers  and  elevcMi  sailing  vessels; 
the  reiwrts  of  the  "Cruises  of  the  Corwin,''  in  1881  and  1885;  "Little 
Joe"  Tuckfield,  of  the  Mackenzie'  river;  Mr.  Leavitt,  of  the  Cape 
Smyth  whaling  station;  Mr.  Wolfe,  of  the  Cape  Sabine  coaling  station; 
Mr.  J.  W.  Kelly,  of  the  Cape  Sabine;  and  Point  Mope  stations;  l'\  ]5irk 
(seaman),  of  the  U.  S.  S.  HoiUjern;  Mr.  (trey,  of  the  PribyloiV  islands; 
Mr.  U.  Neumann,  of  St.  Michaels  and  Ounalaska;  and  the  exix>ricnces 
of  the  U.  S.  S.  ThetlH  during  the  summers  of  1888  and  1889. 

ResjMH'tfully  submittetl, 

Edward  ST>fi'soN, 

EiiftUjn,  U.S.  Navy. 

To  Lieutenant  Commander  CiiAs.  II.  Stockton,  U.  S.  Navy, 


Comniauding  U.  S.  S.  Thdk. 


(4) 


^^miigigaufmmimtm 


ICE  AND  ICE  MOVEMENTS 


IN 


'*,  i88y. 

subjoot  of 
Ik'  viciuiCy 

iiikKt  tlio 
:*  honor  to 

following 
\\\r,  ves-sols; 
5;  "Little 

the  Capo 
ig  station ; 
i;  F.  VArk 
\V  ishnuls; 
xiK'ricncos 


)N, 

.  ^S*.  Navy. 


hctifi. 


Bering  Ska  and  the  Arctic  Basin. 


Report  of  the  ice  as  found  in  Bering  sea  and  the  Arctic 

basin  in  the  vicinity  of  Bering  straits,  and  its 

movements  under  the  influence  of  the 

prevaiUng  currents  and  winds. 


General  description  of  the    ice    in    different    localities. —  The 

"Arctic  pack"  which  nevci-  inohs,  ('((iisists  of  hard,  lihic  ice,  miulc  up  of 
lichls  of  v'oniparativoly  lovol  ice,  as  much  as  \  mih\s  in  {lianictcr,  wliich 
are  snrrouncU'd  and  interspersed  witii  hnnunocks,  (Vomj  20  to  40  led 
hifijh.  Ah)ng  the  ed^((  of  the  pack  "leads"  are  found  rnnninu;  into 
it  for  short  distances  in  dill'erent  directions;  when  the  ])aek  moves  it 
goes  in  a  body,  and  theso  leads  arc  continually  changint!;,  opening  and 
closing,  so  as  to  make  it  im{H)ssil)l('  for  a  vessel,  once  caught  in  the  pack, 
to  proceed  at  will.  A  vessel  so  caught  is  uninaiiageal)le,  even  should  she 
esejipe  being  crusluHl,  and  all  the  whaling  captains  agree  that,  if  it  is 
found  imi)ossible  to  get  out  before  young  ice  makes,  nothing  can  be  done 
except  to  abandon  her. 

In  the  spring,  with  the  prevailing  southerly  winds  and  northerly  cur- 
rents, the  pack  breaks  otf  from  the  shore  ice  and  moves  north,  the 
northern  limit  of  its  southern  edg'-  varying  in  latitude,  as  will  be  shown 
further  on,  and  is  held  north  until  the  fall,  when  it  again  moves  south. 
During  these  siunmer  months  ice  melts,  evaporates  and  disappears,  so 
that,  when  the  pack  returns  south,  the  old  lee  probably  does  not  come 
below  the  latitude  of  ley  ca})e  in  a  body,  unless  it  does  so  well  offshore. 

I  can  find  no  record  of  the  old  pack  being  seen  from  the  shore  in  the 
fall  below  Jcy  cape,  suc^h  portions  of  the  old  ice  that  are  found  below 
that  latitude  being  composed  oC  detached  and  nuich  broken  floes. 

(5) 


'riio  sliore  if'o  and  flaw  'we  \h  thnt  which  rcinaiiiM  fiLst  t«  the  Hhore  aHcr 
lh{!  paclv  moves  ofV, and  which  j;ra(hially  hrcaks  utl'aml  foUows  (hi;  pack 
in  fl(K'H  and  Ihtchcr^jiH.  It  lau'on'e.s  Hcatterc<l  and  is  <|iii(kly  aU'ei'ted  hy 
varying  winds  and  current^,  and  vessels,  fittwl  for  ice  work,  (an  work 
through  it  (jiiite  readily,  so  long  as  yoinig  ice  is  not  forming. 

When  a  v'ssel  has  worked  into  floe  ice  imtil  it  Ixfomes  too  heavy  for 
her  to  proceed,  she  iies  np  to  the  ice  and  awaits  a  shift  of  wind.  It  is 
sjir|)rising  how  (piickly  u  shift  of  wind  will  change  the  ap|>caranee  of 
lot?  in  a  few  hours,  making  wide  leads  whore  shortly  In-fore  tlu!  ice  was 
heavily  massed.  When  young  ice  is  making,  it  form:  very  rapidly 
between  the  cakes  of  tloc  ice,  joii'ing  all  in  a  solid  mass,  and  liK-king  a 
vessel,  so  caught,  very  (piickly. 

liarge,  luunmocky  floes,  which  drif\  or  are  foree<l  np  into  shoal  water, 
and  l)('(!om(^  grounded,  are  known  as  "ground  ice,"  and  it  is  to  these  that 
vessels  secure  to  seek  shelter  in  gales  iVoni  fii>t  drifting  flot^  ice  or  during 
temp(»rary  settings  in  of  the  j)ack.  These  piit-es  of  ground  iec>  arc; 
reeogniziihle,  when  there  is  a  currenl  running,  l>y  the  wake  they  leave,  or 
by  the  height  of  the  "overhang"  of  theii-  former  water-line  above  the 
surface  of  the  water. 

Vessels,  forcing  their  way  through  lloe  ice,  always  avoid  >triking 
ground  iee,  on  account  of  the  great  risk  of  U'ing  "stove"  on  it,  and 
also  the  impossibility  to  move  it.  One  whaling  citptain  descriin's 
makitig  fast  inshore  of  a  floe  of  ground  ice,  showing  only  a  few  feet 
aljove  the  water,  which  was  forced  inshore  by  the  jMick  until  it  was  as 
high  as  his  foroyard. 

"Young  ice"  is  the  nam-  given  to  new  ice  jnst  forming.  During 
cold  weather,  when  the  wind  is  light  or  calm,  young  ice  forms  very 
rapidly.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  pack,  with  northerly  winds  in  early 
October,  it  can  be  seen  shooting  olf  in  forks  from  the  eilge  of  the  pack 
so  rapidly  that  vessels,  k('e})ing  along  its  outer  edge,  are  iiut  of  sight  of 
the  pack  in  a  few  hours.  When  not  in  the  vicinity  of  the  pack,  young 
iee  forms  in  spots,  whicih  spread  out  like  oil  U|K)n  the  water  an<i  soon 
join  in  a  solid  sheet.  It  forms  first  from  the  pack  and  floe  iee,  and  then 
from  the  r^hore,  and  spreads  out  until  the  whole  ocean  is  covered  in  a 
few  days.  During  a  (!old,  calm  night  it  forms  to  a  thickness  of  from  1 
to  (!  inches.  The  l)est  of  the  whaling  steamers  that  go  inl^'  '■  '  Arctic 
can  probably  steam  at  the  rate  of  !)  knots  in  oj)en  water,  b(,  uiii  barely 
force  their  way  through  young  ice  of  5  inches  in  thick  ne^^s  at  3  knots 
an  honr. 

The  ice  in  Boring  sea,  although  it  is  made  nj)  entirely  "''  y;>ung  ice 
every  year,  may  b(!  divided  into  two  kinds,  viz,  that  which  forms  in  the 


itiic  aficr 
the  piicU 
H-ctcHl  l>y 
nil  work 

icavv  for 
-1.  "it  is 
ii-aiiw  of 
?  uv  wiw 
rapidly 
(M'kiii^  a 

al  water, 
Iksc  that 
)!-  (liirii)g 
ice  a  1*0 
leave,  or 
l)<»ve  the 

strikiiij; 

II  it,  and 
deserilx'S 

lew  ieet 
it  was  iXH 

Dtiriiifj; 
rnis  very 
ill  early 
the  pack 
'  sight  of 
k,  young 
aiKi  soon 
and  then 
oreil  in  a 
f  from  1 
l'-  Aivi'w. 

III  barely 
L  3  knots 

';'ung  ice 
us  in  tlu; 


late  fail  and  early  wint(>r,  and  in  teleseopcnl  and  piled  into  heavy  nuiHseH 
during  the  shifting  gates,  aii<l,  secondly,  lliat  whieli  foniis  in  the  late 
winter  and  early  spring  in  the  spaces  left  liy  the  old  ice  moving.  ThiM 
Holid  ice  prol)alily  does  not  extend  t(»  the  sontinvai'd  of  St.  Mallhew 
island,  while  the  ' c  helow  it  as  iiir  as  the  southern  limit  is  niad(!  up  of 
the  newer  ice  and  detached  Hoes  of  well-hroken  ice;. 

All  tli(!  iet!  swn  in  the  vicinity  of  the  l*ril)yloir  islands  is  hrokeii  lloe 
ice  that  \h  intluoncj'd  eontinually  hy  the  wind  im  'ides.  VeMsels  forcing 
their  way  north  in  the  spring  enter  thi.s  new  kl;  rejidily,  if  it  is  well 
liroken,  steamers  forcing  through  it  and  raMouiiiL'"  when  lufc-^sary  ;  and 
Hailing  vessels,  when  they  have  a  fair  •,  i.d,  lashing  their  helms  and 
Ictf'r;;,  the  ship  find  her  own  way  through  it  under  easy  sail.  'VUv. 
heavy  winter  iw  is  always  avoided,  and  tlu  newer  ice,  when  in  large 
floes,  is  also  very  dangerous  on  account  of  their  weight  heing  sunicient 
to  si:ik  a  ship  should  tlu'y  come  together, 

A  ojwe  of  this  occurred  May  2">,  1885,  when  the  ship  CUizelk  tried  to 
run  out  a  gale  hetwceu  two  ie.  fliK's  and  was  crushed  aiu^  sunk.  Or  a 
ship  may  he  dclaiued  in  this  ice,  a>  in  the  case  of  the  steamer  /jV/r/V/c/v, 
which  wa-  nipped  and  drilled  forty-three  days  in  the  ice  in  the  western 
part  of  Bering  sea. 

The  heaviest  patches  of  iee  in  Bering  sea  arc  met  in  the  s[)ring  hy 
vessels  otl'cape  Navarin  or  north  of  St.  Ijsiwrence  island;  and  it  is  the 
iee  that  forms  in  the  gulf  of  Anadir,  where  the  strong  northeast  gales 
drive  against  tli(^  current  and  keep  |)iling,  grinding  and  telescoping  the 
iee  into  heavy  masses. 

Southern  limit  of  the  ice. — Although  there  is  a  tradition  existing 
ill  Ouualaska  that  one  winter,  years  ag(»,  tiie  ice  came  down  on  llu; 
island  in  heavy  masros  ;  ami  in  January,  1H7<S,  it  was  down  on  Akt>utau 
island  and  in  Ounimak  pass,  when  several  native  boats  were  lost  in  it. 
The  southern  limit  can  safely  be  said  to  be  in  latitude  5G°  N.,  about  35 
miles  south  of  St.  George  islaiul.  Occasionally,  as  in  LSSIJ,  no  ice  is 
seen  at  the  Pribylotf  islands,  but  genei-ally  after  three  weeks  of  north- 
easterly winds  it  comes  down  from  the  Uio  itli  of  the  Koskovine  river 
in  very  much  broken  Hoes,  and  remains  in  sight,  moving  to  the  east- 
ward and  westward  with  the  winds,  until  the  spring,  when  a  southerly 
wind  soon  drives  it  north.  This  generally  occurs  in  the  latter  part  of 
April,  although  in  l.SSO  it  leinained  so  late  that  an  iron  steamer,  the 
Alaska  Commercial  (/ompaiiy's  steamer  fSl.  Paul,  unlitted  for  encounter- 
ing ice,  was  unable  to  elfect  a  landing  until  June  1. 

Whaling  ve>scls,  which  are  sheathed  antl  litte«l  (or  ice  work,  take  the 
iee  about  April  7-1  o,  although  a  lew  do  so  as  early  as  March  2o.    Those 


\\'\ 


enter!  11}^  Bering  sea  by  Ouniniak  pass  meet  the  ice  in  the  latitnde  of 
St.  George  island,  wiiile  those  coming  throngh  Anionghta  pass  meet  it  in 
longitiido  175°  W.,  latitnde  58°  N.  In  longitnde  180°  it  is  fonnd  in 
latitnde  (30°  N.  abont  April  15.  The  most  sontheru  point  I  have  fonnd 
vessels  reporting  ice  is  latitnde  5G°  10'  N.,  longitnde  171°  30'  W.,  on 
April  12,  1889  ;  and  several  report  meeting  it  in  latitnde  57°  30'  N.,  in 
abont  longitnde  175°  W.,  dnring  the  middle  of  April.  The  general 
contonr  of  the  sonthern  limit  of  the  ice  in  Jeering  sea  is  from  Bristol 
bay  to  about  35  miles  sonth  of  the  Pribylort"  islands,  and  then  northwest 
in  the  direction  of  cape  Omchinsky. 

Spring  movements  of  the  ice  in  Bering  sea. — The  movements  of 
the  ice  upon  breaking  up  in  the  spring  are  due  altogether  to  the  currents 
and  winds;  and  as  the  currents  are  greatly  aifected  by  the  prevailing 
winds,  navigators  wishing  to  push  north  early  should  be  influenced  in 
their  movements  largely  by  them.  While  the  pack  remains  solid  in  the 
middle  of  the  sea,  both  sides  are  found  navigable  much  earlier.  This  is 
due  to  the  breaking  up  of  the  ice  off'  shore  by  local  winds,  the  northerly 
currents,  and  the  currents  setting  out  of  the  numerous  rivers.  Whether 
the  east  or  west  shore  is  the  most  open  depends  largely  upon  what  the 
])revailing  spring  winds  have  been,  strong  easterly  and  northeasterly 
winds  packing  the  ice  heavily  on  cape  Navarin  and  breaking  it  up  on 
the  cast  shore,  and  vice  versa.  On  the  west  shore  the  current  .sets  north- 
east well  off' shore,  and  although  its  speed  is  increased  or  diminished  by 
prevailing  winds,  it  is  seldo'm  that  the  current  changes  its  direction  to 
the  southward.  In  1886,  the  bark  Sat  Breeze  dymug  a  northeast  gale 
off  cape  Navarin,  furled  all  sail,  made  fast  to  a  floe  of  drifting  ice,  and 
in  three  days  drifted  45  miles  to  windward.  Off  cape  Navarin  the 
current  splits  about  30  miles  off  shore,  one  branch  following  the  trend 
of  the  coast  in  a  southwesterly,  direction  towards  cape  Omchinsky,  and 
the  other  running  to  the  northward  into  the  gulf  of  Anadir  and  then 
off'  to  the  northeast,  running  strong  between  St.  Lawrence  island  and 
Indian  ])olnt. 

In  May,  188!),  the  bark  Ahrahaui  navker,  when  about  30  miles  .south- 
etist  of  cajje  Navarin,  encountered  a  northeast  gale  and  drifted  in  well 
towards  cape  Omchinsky  in  the  southwest  current. 

In  the  spring  of  1887,  the  bark  Hunter  was  nipped  in  the  middle  of 
the  gulf  of  Anadir  and  drifted  with  the  i(!0  out  of  the  gulf  and  to  the 
northward  of  St.  Lawrence  island,  passing  very  close  to  cape  Chibukak. 

On  the  ea.st  side  of  Bering  sea,  between  St.  Matthew  and  Nunivak 
islands,  the  .set  of  the  current  is  north.     W^lth  prevailing  northeast  winds 


« 


ititiulo  of 
meet  it  in 
found  in 
ivc  found 
)'  W.,  on 
50'  N.,  in 
a  general 
ni  Bristol 
lorthwest 

inients  of 
i  currents 
trevailing 
lenced  in 
lid  in  the 
Til  is  is 
northerly 
Whether 
what  the 
heasterly 
it  up  on 
:ts  north- 
lished  hy 
cction  to 
east  gale 
J  ice,  and 
^arin  the 
the  trend 
sky,  and 
uid  then 
and  and 

2rt  soiltil- 
in  well 

liddle  of 
\  to  the 
libukak. 

Vuuivak 
St  winds 


it  sets  northwest,  and  with  northwest  and  southwest  winds,  northejist. 
This  northerly  current  continues  past  the  east  side  of  St.  I  ^wrence  island 
to  King's  island;  from  there  it  sets  in  toward  Port  Clarence,  then  fol- 
lows the  trend  of  the  coast  past  capes  York  and  Prince  of  Wales,  and 
into  the  Arci  ocean.  The  current  on  the  east  side  is  not  as  strong  as 
that  on  the  west  side,  and  north  of  St.  Lawrence  island  the-  west  shore 
from  Indian  point  to  the  Diomede  islands  is  invariably  clear  of  ice 
before  the  east  shore;  consequently  Indian  point  is  the  first  objective 
point  for  vessels  pushing  their  way  north  in  the  spring.  The  action  of 
these  currents  is  as  follows  :  • 

• 

Ice  clears  the  Pribyloff  islands  about  May  1.  The  pack  moves  north, 
the  sides  clearing  ahead  of  the  center,  and  vessels  following  the  pack 
reach  cape  Navarin  about  May  10.  Here  the  heavy  ice,  which  forms  in 
the  gulf  of  Anadir  by  the  young  ice  piling  up  under  the  influence  of 
northeast  winds,  is  nut  coming  out  of  the  gulf  This  ice  is  set  to  the 
eastward  by  the  spring  southerly  and  westerly  winds  until  it  meets  the 
strong  northeast  current,  when  it  sets  up  into  the  channel  between  Indian 
point  and  St.  Lawrence  island;  then  the  main  body  of  it  swings  around 
on  the  north  and  northeast  side  of  St.  Lawrence  island,  where  it  lodges 
until  the  last  of  it  breaks  up  and  goes  uoi'th  during  the  middle  of  July. 
Young  ice  continues  to  form  in  Bering  sea  until  May  10,  and  after  that 
time  it  is  not  looked  for.  On  April  12, 1888,  the  steamer  Orca  steamed 
for  six  hours  through  young  ice  in  about  latitude  60°  N.,  longitude  178° 
E.  It  sometimes  happens  that  vessels  find  a  clear  lead  from  cape  Nav- 
arin to  Indian  point  or  St.  Lawrence  island  as  early  as  May  18,  but  this 
occurs  only  in  exceptional  seasons.  As  a  rule,  vessels  that  are  deter- 
mined to  keep  the  west  shore  follow  leads  into  the  gulf  of  Anadir, 
steamers  forcing  through  the  broken  ice,  and  sailing  vessels  hauling 
through  it  with  ice  hooks  and  steam  winches;  the  former  coming  out 
into  chixr  water  oif  cape  Bering  about  May  2"),  and  the  latter  about 
June  10.  When  cape  Bering  is  clear,  Indian  point  can  be  reached  with- 
out much  difficulty.  Should  a  vessel  arriving  near  cape  Navarin  find 
the  ice  heavily  packed  in  that  vicinity,  indicating  prevailing  easterly 
sju-ing  winds,  she  should  not  be  mislead  by  the  space  of  open  water  that 
generally  exists  south  of  the  cape,  antl  which  is  about  50  by  25  miles  in 
extent,  but  shouhl  follow  the  line  of  the  pack  to  the  eastward  and  try 
the  eastern  shore.  By  so  doing  she  will  probably  find  the  edge  of  the 
pack  in  tiic  h)ngitude  of  St.  Matthew  island,  in  latitude  61t°  to  60°  ; 
from  there  it  will  lead  her  close  to  the  west  coast  of  Nunivak  island, 
from  which  |)osition  she  should  work  up  to  the  southeast  cape  of  St. 
Lawrence  island;   thence  she  may  work  along  the  south  side  of  the 


10 


i 


1 


island  and  find  clear  water  from  (iape  Chibukak  to  Indian  point  before 
the  ice  is  o|)en  from  cajx)  Navarin  to  cape  Bering.  It  is  useless  to 
attempt  to  pass  to  the  northward  of  St.  l^awrence  island  from  the  cast 
side,  as  the  heavy  impassable  ice,  before  mentional  as  coming  out  of  the 
gulf  of  Anadir,  exists  there  much  later  than  it  does  on  the  southern 
shore. 

This  eastern  route  is  fre<piently  underiaken  by  the  whalemeii;  indewl, 
some  of  them  always  take  it  in  })reference  to  attempting  the  western 
route,  in  order  to  reach  open  water  off  Indian  point  and  meet  the  whales 
coming  "head  on"  through  the  heavy  ice  t;0  the  .sou,thward.  It  is  a 
mooted  question  by  which  route  a  vessel  <  ui  get  north  at  the  earliest 
date ;  but  I  should  recommend  giving  the  [)reference  to  the  west  shore, 
and  if  that  is  found  heavily  blocked,  then  to  lose  no  time  in  trying  to 
force  the  ice,  but  follow  the  southern  edge  of  the  pack  and  attempt  the 
eastern  route,  which  will  probably  be  found  in  that  case  coniparatively 
open. 

North  of  St.  Lawrence  island,  the  west  side  of  Bering  sea  clears  of 
ice  much  earlier  than  the  east  side,  and  vessels  reaching  Indian  point 
find  the  ice  broken  into  large  Hoes  around  which  they  can  work,  outside 
of  the  shore  ice,  as  far  as  East  cajie.  The  bay  and  shore  ice  break  up 
at  a  much  later  date. 

As  seasons  vary  to  a  great  extent,  due  to  the  prevailing  winds,  it  is 
difficult  to  fix  dates  for  the  prol)able  arrival  of  vessels  at  different 
places ;  but,  as  a  general  rule,  steamers  reach  Indian  point  about  May 
25  to  June  5,  and  St.  I^awrence  bay  about  June  10-25. 

In  1882,  the  Co  no  in,  sifter  protractefl  westerly  gales,  reached  St.  I^aw- 
rence  bay  May  11,  rcmainetl  there  a  few  hours  and  then  returned  south. 
Shortly  afVer  leaving,  an  ejisterly  w'mil  set  the  pack  on  again  and  closed 
the  bay  for  six  weeks.  This  shows  that  vessels  which  sucoeed  in  get- 
ting so  far  north  at  such  an  early  date,  only  accomplish  it  under  pecu- 
liarly favorable  circumstances;  and  even  then,  at  great  risks,  as  the  pack 
is  not  sufficiently  broken  u|)  until  the  middle  of  rlune,  in  that  vicinity, 
to  enable  vessels  to  proceed  fearlessly. 

The  prevailing  winds  north  of  St.  Lawrence  island  are  southerly 
afler  April  15,  and  the  pack  breaks  off  at  that  time  about  G  or  8  miles 
offshore.  It  comes  in  and  moves  off  with  the  varying  winds  until  June 
15,  when  it  breaks  up  and  goes  off  to  the  northward. 

The  natives  put  their  canoes  in  the  water  alK)Ut  May  15,  showing  that 
young  ice  has  ceased  to  form.  The  shore  ice  and  that  in  the  bays  breaks 
up  and  moves  off  from  fifteen  to  twenty  days  afler  the  pack  disappears. 


I 


I 


lit  before 
i.seless  to 
1  the  east 
ut  of  the 
southern 

ijulee<], 
western 
le  whales 
It  is  a 
e  earliest 
est  shore, 
trying  to 
empt  the 
arativcly 

clears  of 
an  point 
:,  outside 
)reak  up 

ikIs,  it  is 
different 
out  May 

3t.  Law- 
xl  south, 
id  closed 
1  in  get- 
er  pecu- 
(he  pack 
vicinity, 

oudierly 

<S  miles 

itil  ,Func 

iiig  that 
s  breaks 
appears. 


11  : 

In  Norton  sound  the  ice  remains  later,  its  time  of  departure  varying 
with  the  strength  and  direction  of  the  puivailiiig  spring  winds  as  much 
as  three  weeks  on  diflen^nt  seasons.  Southerly  and  easterly  winds  clear 
the  sound  and  westerly  winds  pile  the  ice  in. 

Young  ice  ceases  to  form  in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Michaels,  May  1.  The 
earliest  arrival  rcciorded  at  St.  Michaels  is  May  25,  1875,  vvhen  a 
s(!liooncr,  commanded  by  an  exjierienced  man,  reached  that  jilace. 
Captain  M.  A.  Healy,  U.  S.  R.  M.,  reached  St.  Michaels  during  two 
suc(!essive  seasons  on  June  5  and  8,  and  it  is  generally  expecited  that 
vessels  will  arrive  there  June  10-15.  The  Alaska  Commercial  Com- 
pany's steamers,  which  are  not  fitttsd  for  encountering  ice,  leave 
Ounahuska  on  their  tirst  northern  trip  about  June  25,  and  reach  St. 
Michaels  safely,  only  encountering  patches  of  drifl  ice,  through  wl  ich 
they  can  easily  pick  their  way.  , 

In  1880,  which  was  a  westerly  season,  the  Corwhi  met  heavy  ice,  June 
11,  in  latitude  G0°  50'  N.,  and,  on  July  9,  when  16  miles  from  St. 
Michaels,  was  stopped  by  heavy  ice,  which  cleared  away  a  few  days  later. 

The  heavy  ice  between  St.  Lawrence  and  King's  islands  remains  closely 
packed  much  longer  than  any  other  ice  in  Bering  sea.  It  gradually 
melts  and  breaks  up  and  sets  north  toward  the  straits  at  about  1  knot  an 
hour,  the  last  of  it  disappearing  from  July  5-15. 

Fort  Clarence  being  a  good  harbor,  close  to  the  straits  and  free  from 
ocean  swell,  is  the  rendezvous  for  the  vessels  of  the  Pacific  Steam 
Whaling  Company's  ships  to  meet  the  tender  which  supplies  them  with 
coal  and  provisions,  and  takes  south  the  results  of  the  spring  catch. 
This  bay,  being  well  enclosed,  dears  of  ice  much  later  than  the  time  of 
the  departure  of  the  i)ack  along  the  shore.  In  1885,  the  bark  Wanderei' 
anchored  in  Port  Clarence  June  25,  which  is  the  earliest  date  that  it  has 
been  navigable  for  years.  As  a  general  rule,  the  tender  to  the  whaling 
fleet  arrives  there,  July  1-5,  without  encountering  any  heavy  ice. 

Spring  movements  of  the  ice  in  Bering  straits. — The  current 
through  Bering  straits  sets  north,  and,  when  not  influenced  by  prevailing 
winds,  its  rate  is  about  2  knits  an  hour.  Protracted  northerly  gales, 
lasting  a  week  or  more,  are  sufficient  to  change  its  direction  southerly, 
but  upon  the  cessation  of  these  winds  it  quickly  sets  north  again. 
Strong  s  therly  winds  increase  its  rate  to  3  knots.  In  the  spring  the 
current  on  the  cast  side  of  the  Diomedes  is  the  strongest,  but  the  west 
side  of  the  straits,  on  account  of  the  west  shore  being  cleared  by  the 
northeast  current  to  the  southward,  is  the  first  to  clear  of  ice,  and  is 
given  the  preference  by  vessels  pnu'eeding  north.  * 


w^ 


I  J  I 


12 


In  1889,  the  Thdis  passed  between  East  cape  and  the  Dioniede  islands 
without  sigliting  any  ico  July  3,  but  on  July  6  she  met  nutuerous  patf^hes 
of  drift  ice  setting  to  the  northward  between  cape  Prince  of  Wales  and 
the  Diomedes.  Although  in  1880  the  first  vessels  passed  through  the 
straits  May  22,  and  in  1881  vessels  had  reached  latitude  68°  N.  by  May 
31,  these  were  exceptionally  early  seasons,  the  usual  time  at  which 
vessels  find  the  straits  navigable  being  June  ]')-2i'3.  Unless  it  is  an 
unusually  late  spring,  vessels  are  sin-c  to  be  through  the  straits  by  July 
1,  and,  once  through,  the  latitude  of  the  Arctic  circle  is  easily  reached. 

Spring  movements  of  the  ice  in  the  Arctic  ocean. — After  passing 
through  the  straits  the  current  an  the  east  side  takes  a  northeasterly 
direction,  following  the  coast  line  and  setting  into  Kotzebue  sound  ; 
thence  northwest,  along  the  coast  to  point  Hope,  and  around  it,  fol- 
lowing the  shore  line  i  p  to  point  Barrow,  where  it  goes  off  to  the 
northeast.  On  the  west  side  of  the  straits  the  current  branches  off  to 
the  northwest  and  follows  the  Siberian  shore  up  pa^t  cape  Serdze  and 
and  Kolintschin  island,  and  thence  off  toward  Herald  island.  The 
action  of  these  (ujrrents  is  similar  to  that  in  the  Bering  sea,  the  pa(!k 
breaking  off  first  from  the  shore  ice,  at  distances  off  shore  varying  from 
2  to  10  milci,  working  off  and  on  until  it  breaks  up  and  goes  north, 
followed  later  by  the  shore  ice.  Mention  is  sometimes  made  of  an  oval 
basin  of  open  water,  of  varying  extent,  being  found  in  the  early  spring, 
extending  in  a  northwest  and  southeast  direction  on  the  Siberian  side  in 
the  latitude  of  the  Arctic  cin'le.  This  jirobably  exists  every  year,  due 
to  the  retiring  of  the  Arctic  puck,  the  drift  ice  setting  north  from  Bering 
sea  being  set  off  to  the  northeast  and  being  insufficient  in  quaiitity  to  fill 
up  both  sides  alike.  • 

After  passing  through  Bering  straits  the  ice  met  is  heavy,  rough, 
hummocky  ice,  and  vessels  proceed  cautiously,  following  tHe  pack,  and 
not  getting  between  it  and  the  shore  ice  if  it  can  possibly  l)e  avoided. 
The  pack  moves  north  from  l)oth  shores  at  about  the  same  time,  and 
cape  Serdze  is  attainable,  probably,  a  week  before  point  Hope,  which,  as 
a  rule,  is  reached  by  the  first  vessels  bound  north  July  4. 

Kotzebue  sound,  like  all  other  enclosed  bays,  is  blocked  with  ice  later 
than  the  shore  line  to  the  northward  of  it,  and  its  time  of  clearing 
depends  upon  the  prevailing  winds.  A  vessel,  by  following  the  shore 
line  closely  from  cape  Prince  of  Wales  to  cape  Kspt nberg,  working 
through  the  drift  ice,  which  sets  oif  shore,  and  through  Jiering  straits, 
may  reach  the  sound  by  July  5,  and  it  is  generally  navigable  July  10.     - 

In  1880,  which  was  a  westerly  season,  the  sound  was  blocked  by  ice 
Jidy  12,  while  in  1881  at  the  same  date,  there  was  no  i(^e  U)  be  s(nm 


13 


1c  islands 
s  patches 
^ales  and 
n\^h  the 
l)y  May 
at  which 
IS  it  is  an 
hy  July 
reacihed. 

r  passing 

lieastt'i'ly 

e  sound  ; 

d   it,  fol- 

»if'  to  the 

les  off  to 

srdze  and 

id.     The 

the  pa(!k 

ing  from 

es  north, 

f  an  oval 

W  spring, 

in  side  in 

year,  due 

111  Bering 

ity  to  fill 

y,  rough, 
)ack,  and 
avoided, 
time,  and 
which,  us 

ice  later 
'  clearing 
the  shore 
working 
g  straits, 
ilylO.  - 
wl  hy  ice 

he  s(H'u 


there.  As  a  general  rule,  heavy  drift  ice  coming  out  of  Kotzebile  sound 
is  found  l)etw(!en  cape  l>lossoin  and  point  Hope  up  to  July  12.  The 
current  between  these  points  runs  rapidly,  wirryiiig  the  i<'c  along  at  the 
rate  of  fi'om  2  to  .'}  knots,  and  hanking  it  doselv  together  (xtcuding  10 
miles  off'  shore  at  point  Hope  after  the  pack  has  moved  off  from  that 
vi<!inity. 

In  the  vicinity  of  point  Hop(i  and  cape  Lisbume  the  pack  breaks  off 
about  3  miles  from  the  shore,  from  April  ">  to  May  25,  and  moves  off 
and  (iloses  in  again  with  changing  winds,  gradually  working  off  to  the 
northward  and  westward.  Young  ice  forms  in  the  spaces  thus  left  to 
about  5  inches  in  thickness,  and  gradually  gets  thinner  until  it  disap- 
pears about  May  15. 

The  time  of  dejiarture  of  the  shore  ice  varies  greatly.  In  LSSO  it 
movgd  off"  July  13,  and  in  1889,  June  14. 

By  following  the  shore  ice,  natives  make  the  trij)  from  point  Hope  to 
Cxipe  Lisburne  in  canoes  as  early  as  June  1,  but  it  is  not  safe  for  vessels 
to  enter  the  lead  thus  made  until  the  solid  pack  has  moved  to  the  north- 
ward. 

Drifl  ice  remains  in  sight  until  July  10-25. 

As  the  prevailing  spring  winds  are  southerly,  there  is  always  more  or 
less  open  water  close  inshore  in  the  bight  to  the  eastward  of  cape  Lis- 
burne after  May  1. 

On  account  of  the  contour  of  the  shore  line  and  the  banking  of  the 
Kotzebue  sound  i("^  around  point  Hope,  with  prevailing  southwest 
v.iiids,  vessels  can  break  through  the  strip  of  drift  ice  off  cape  Lisburne 
and  find  an  anchorage  off  cape  Sabine  before  they  can  make  the  jioint 
Hope  anchorage.  Point  Hope  is  the  rendezvous  of  the  New  Bedford 
Whaling  Fleet  to  meet  the  tender  sent  up  with  supplies.  The  leading 
vessels  generally  reach  there  July  4,  and  the  tender  arrives  from  «Tuly 
5-10,  without  encountering  very  niuch  ice.    • 

Vessels  have  arri'  (xl  at  cape  Lisburne  as  early  as  June  17,  and  then 
again  have  been  until  July  25  getting  to  point  Hope;  but  these  w(!re 
exceptional  cases,  and  probably  illustrate  the  extreme  cases  of  opeii  and 
late  seasons. 

Whales  are  seen  off  point  Hojk'  as  early  as  April  23,  showing  tliat 
ice-holes  must  be  plentiful  at  tliat  early  date. 

From  cape  Beaufort  to  point  Barrow  the  \)av\<  moves  gradually  north, 
clearing  from  point  to  j)oiut.  Vessels  cannot  attempt  to  force  it,  but 
fellow  (;losely,  being  cautious  not  to  get  between  it  and  the  shore  'we,  A 
shift  "f  wind  to  the  westward  brings  the  pack  in  on  shore  wli'ii  a  few 


!'  I     i 


14 


liollrs  befofo  it  was  -out  of  sight  from  the  land.     Off  shore  tlie  pack 
moves  to  the  northward  more  sU)wly. 

The  current  setting  along  the  Siberian  shore  changes  to  the  northward 
and  sets  up  toward  Herald  island  at  the  rate  of  ahont  1  knot  an  liour, 
carrying  the  ice  up  in  that  direction,  so  that  late  in  the  fall  it  has  formed 
a  ga|)  in  the  pa(!k,  extending  about  30  miles  north  of  Herald  island, 
known  as  "the  Hole."  The  result  of  this  northerly  current  and  the 
northeast  current  along  the  Alaska  shore,  combinwl  with  the  i)revailing 
sujnmcr  southwest  and  southeast  winds,  is  that  the  center  of  the  pack  in 
this  Arctic  basin  moves  slower  than  the  sides,  and,  with  the  addition  of 
drifting  Hoes,  a  point  of  ice  is  formed,  extending  well  to  the  southward. 
This  point  is  found  in  from  longitude  160°  W.  to  170°  W.,  and  is  known 
as  "Post-Office  point,"  as  it  makes  a  natural  meeting  place  for  vessels 
cruising  to  the  eastward  and  westward  to  communicatt;  and  exchange 
news.  On  very  open  seasons,  with  prevailing  southwesterly  winds, 
Post-Office  point  has  been  found  as  far  to  the  eastward  as  longitude 
157°  W. 

I  have  been  unable  to  collect  much  data  to  determine  the  spring  move- 
ments of  the  pack  in  the  vicinity  of  Herald  island.  In  1881,  which 
was  an  exceptionally  open  season  to  the  westward,  vessels  were  within 
sight  of  Herald  island  July  20,  and  on  July  30  the  (  hrwln  landed  nnui 
there,  having  passed  considerable  ice  midway  between  there  and  cjipe 
Sabine.  On  August  12  of  the  same  year  she  succeeded  in  forcing  her 
way  through  very  heavy  floe  ice  and  landed  men  on  Wrangel  island.  In 
1885,  the  Corwin  met  solid  packed  ice  as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach,  in 
latitude  69°  32'  N.,  longitude  174'^  15'  W. 

Following  the  coast  north  of  Icy  cape,  vessels  always  have  to  take 
more  or  less  risk.  If  the  pack  is  not  far  off  shore  it  is  liable  to  shut  in 
for  several  days  at  a  time  on  the  different  cajjcs,  when  vessels  may  anchor 
in  the  bights  or  moor  to  ground  ice  until  the  pacik  sets  oil'  shore  again. 

The  dates  of  the  j)robable  arrival  of  vessels  at  different  points  vary 
greatly  with  different  seasons.  In  1879,  about  August  20,  the  fleet  was 
8top])etl  by  the  pack  at  Blossom  shoals;  a  few  vessels  worked  around, 
and  about  15  miles  into  the  bight  to  the  eastward,  but  returned  within  a 
week. 

On  August  9,  1885,  there  was  heavy  drift  ice  on  Icy  cape,  but  vessels 
worketl  through  it,  and,  on  August  10,  anchorwl  at  point  AFarsh.  On 
August  14  of  the  same  year  the  ice  was  packed  in  solid  on  ])()int  Frank- 
lin, but  vessels  then  between  cape  Smyth  and  that  point  lay  safely  under 
iXie  lee  of  ground  ice,  and  succeeded  in  getting  south  by  August  1 'J,  when 


16 


tlic  pack 

lortliward 
t  ail  liour, 

as  formed 

Id  i.sland, 
t  and  tlio 

)revailing 
10  pack  ill 

Idition  of 
outliward. 

is  known 
"or  vessels 

cxcii.inj^e 
ly  winds, 

longitude 

■ingmovc- 
81,  which 
ere  within 
iiided  men 
and  cape 
jrcing  her 
sland.  In 
1  reach,  in 

.ve  to  take 
to  shut  in 
lay  anchor 
lore  again, 
oints  vary 
e  fleet  was 
d  around, 
1  within  a 

)nt  vessels 
irsli.  On 
nt  Frank- 
fely  under 
1 1 9,  when 


the  pack  moved  olT  shore  with  a  shift  of  wind  and  cleared  the  Sea  Horse 
islands. 

In  1881,  Ahc  pack  was  in  on  lilossom  shoals  July  21,  and  on  July  25 
it  was  in  sight  from  the  shore  25  miles  to  the  southward  of  Icy  cape,  and 
the  "blink"  was  strong  to  the  southwest.     This  was  an  average  season. 

In  the  vicinity  of  point  Barrow,  during  the  early  spring,  tlic  pack 
breaks  off  from  the  flaw,  or  shore  ice  and  moves  off  and  on,  young  ice 
forming  in  the  gap  thus  made  until  the  middle  of  May.  After  the  early 
part  of  June,  when  the  pack  moves  off,  it  begins  to  take  a  northwest 
movement  and  continues  to  do  so  until  it  is  gone.  This  movement,  on 
and  off  of  the  pack,  continues  until  about  July  15,  after  which  time 
heavily  hiassed  floe  ice,  much  broken  and  closely  jammed  together,  may 
be  looked. for.  The  shore  ice  leaves  the  beach  July  15-25,  but  remains 
in  sight  until  the  middle  of  August,  or  [)erhaps  all  summer.  On  excep- 
tional seasons  the  pack  remains  on  the  point  all  the  year  around.  In 
1879  and  1886,  point  Barrow  was  shut  in.  '; 

In  1888,  the  steamer  Orca  reached  the  point  July  4,  which  was  the 
earliest  arrival  on  record. 

lu  1880,  the  pack  was  only  4  miles  off  the  point  August  25,  when  the 
first  vessels  arrived  there.  These  are  about  the  extreme  dates  of  vessels 
arriving  during  seasons  when  the  point  is  opjii,  the  average  date  of 
arrival  being  August  10-12. 

To  the  eastward  of  point  l>arrow  the  conditions  of  the  ice  are  very 
nuccrtain,  and  it  is  advisable  for  all  vessels  going  out  of  sight  of  point 
Barrow  to  be  prepared  to  spend  at  least  one  winter  in  the  Arctic.  When 
the  pack  moves  off  shore  it  does  not  proceed  very  far,  and  the  shore  and 
drift  ice  is  found  extending  from  its  edge  well  in  shore. 

The  currents  from  the  rivers  clear  the  bays  of  drifting  ice,  and  strong 
winds  from  west  to  northeast,  by  way  of  south,  clear  the  pack  from  the 
different  points.       , 

Winds  from  west  to  northeast,  by  way  of  no  tli,  bring  the  heavy  floe 
and  pack  ice  dt)wn  on  the  points,  and  vessels  so  shut  in  are  very  liable 
to  be  imprisoned,  esjiccially  should  young  ice  set  in  before  the  .southerly 
winds  arise. 

The  current  running  along  the  west  shor'j  of  Alaska  sets  off  north- 
east from  point  Barrow,  and  to  the  eastward  of  that  the  movements  of 
the  ice  are  due  entirely  to  winds,  river  currents  and  "witch  currents.'' 

These  "witch  currents,"  which  is  the  name  given  them  by  the  whalers, 
seem  to  be  peculiar  to  this  locality.  Some  mention  them  as  existing  in 
the    neighborhood   of  Port   Clarence,   but   I    believe  these  to  be  only 


16 


counter  tida!  t'lirroiits.  "  Witi^li  ciirreiijs  "  are  vi.sil)l(!  on  tlic  Miirtacj'  of 
i\n'  water  as  swirls  and  chUIIcs,  and  are  shifting  and  disappearing.  Ves- 
sels in  close  proximity  will  be  moved  by  these  currents  in  diflerent  direc- 
tions at  the  rate  of  ii  or  4  knots. 

When  the  Tlietiti  was  moored  to  the  ice  oW  Lion  reef,  large  Hoes  of  i(!e, 
within  a  radius  of  half  a  mile,  were  observed  moving  in  three  different 
directions,  and  were  api)arently  tniiniluenced  by  the  wind,  their  motion 
being  entirely  due  to  strong  Iwal  currents.  At  another  time,  to  illus- 
trate the  danger  attached  to  these  currents,  when  moored  to  gromid  ic(! 
and  riding  head  to  wind,  with  the  drift  ice  setting  by  on  either  side  and 
astern,  a  large  floe,  under  the  influence  of  a  "  wilch  current,"  moved 
rapidly  at  right  angles  to  the  general  ice  movement,  and  swung  in  around 
the  stern  of  this  vessel  before  she  could  be  gotten  out  of  the  way,  com- 
pletely eJielosing  her  in  heavy  ice.  She  was  worked  clear  in  an  hour 
and  a  half;  but  had  young  ice  been  forming  at  the  time,  the  situation 
would  have  been  attendwl  with  considerable  danger. 

Vessels  have  never  been  far  enough  off  shore  to  ascertain  if  these 
"witch  currents"  arc  peculiar  to  shoal  water  only,  but  they  arc  probably 
due  to  the  changeable  ciu'rents  made  by  the  eddies  and  counter  currents 
in  the  wake  of  large  bodies  of  ground  and  {)erhaps  nicving  ice. 

The  winds  to  the  eastward  are  generally  local,  and  even  when  strong 
are  limited  in  extent;  and  vessels  well  to  the  eastward  have  no  way 
whatever  of  telling  the  condition  of  the  ice  to  the  westward  of  them. 
Those  who  are  drawing  enough  to  push  on  to  the  eastward,  run  con;-*d- 
erable  risk,  being  guided  to  some  extent  by  the  amount  of  norths,  fly 
winds  they  experience,  of  finding  the  different  points  closed  by  ice  upon 
their  return.     The  lo(!al  winds  affect  the  ice  very  rapidly. 

On  the  evening  of  August  10,  1889,  the  Thetis  moored  to  ground  ice 
off  Cross  island,  the  drift  ice  having  a  })erceptible  movement  to  the 
westward.  During  the  night  a  strong  westerly  wind  sprang  up,  and  by 
the  next  noon  the  ice  was  setting  in  heavy  masses  to  the  eastward  at 
the  rate  of  from  2  to  ;}  knots.  •        • 

Again,  after  being  shut  in  off'  Cooper's  island  from  August  19  to  24, 
by  the  main  pack,  which  had  shut  down  on  point  Barrow,  thirty-six 
hours  of  light  breezes  from  KNE.  to  SE,  moved  the  ice  off  shore  and 
opened  a  lead  to  point  Barrow,  so  that  vessels  leaving  Manning  point 
four  days  later  than  this  ship,  arrived  twelve  hours  later  at  point  Bar- 
row without  being  forced  to  ram  the  ice  at  all.  .J 

A  glance  at  the  chart  shows  that  Tangent  point,  cape  Halket,  Lion 
reef  and  Martin  point  arc  the  principal   projecting  points  of  the  coast, 


I 


i 


4 


17 


HUrl'iKH'    of 

rciit  (lircc- 

Hoes  of"  ice, 
c  (lifforciit 
eir  motion 
,  to  illiis- 
grouiul  ice 
r  .side  and 
t,"  moved 

;  in  anuind 
wav,  com- 
n  an  hour 

16  situation 


in  if  these 
probably 
er  currents 


hen  strong 
VG  no  way 
'd  of  them, 
run  con.^Jd- 
northtcly 
)y  ice  upon 

ground  ice 
lent  to  the 
jp,  and  by 
astward  at 

1  J  0  to  21, 
,  thirty-six 
sliore  and 
iiiiig  point 
point  ]Jar- 

ilket,  Lion 
the  coast, 


« 


and  these  are  the  jMjints  where  the  pack  is  found  resting.  If  they  are 
found  ch-ar,  a  vessel  can  procecij,  finding  the  ice  well  broken  and  scat- 
tered along  the  bays  in  t'rjin  5  to  8  fathoms  of  water. 

Hy  following  this  cu  irse  the  Thdifi,  in  1H89,  reachetl  Mactkenzie  bay 
August  15,  finding  heavy  floe  ice  off  point  Tangent,  and  later  the  pack; 
closely  packed  rotten  ice  off  cape  Ualket;  the  pack  about  4  miles  oil' 
Lion  reef,  and  about  the  same  distance  off  Martin  point. 

In  the  bays,  the  "shore"  and  "floe"  ice  were  found  in  greater  or  less 
(juanlities  close  inshore,  except  in  the  lagoous,  until  to  the  eastward  of 
llcrschel  island. 

It  is  not  prudent  for  sailing  vessels  to  go  at  all  to  the  eastward  of  point 
Harrow,  but  when  the  ice  is  well  open  they  venture  as  far  as  Tangent 
point. 

An  exce[)tionally  open  season  occurred  in  1878,  when  the  sailing  fleet 
all  reached  Camden  bay. 

The  steam  whalers  go  as  far  as  the  ice  will  allow  them,  their  objective 
point  being  the  mouth  of  the  Macken/io  river.  As  a  general  rule,  they 
do  not  get  farther  than  Return  reef,  and  in  188S  succeeded  in  reaching 
Manning  point.  In  1889,  which  was  an  exceptionally  open  season,  they 
went  as  far  as  Shingle  point,  Mackenzie  bay,  which  is  the  first  time  this 
has  been  accomplished  since  1850,  when  MeClure  and  Coliinson  were 
searching  for  traces  of  Sir  John  Fraidclin. 

•In  1887,  the  ice  was  only  open  for  two  days  from  Camden  bay  to  the 
Mackenzie  river  sufTieiently  to  {jerniit  canoes  to  travel. 

To  the  eastward  of  ITerschel  island  clear  water  is  found  across 
Mackenzie  bay.  The  curr(!iit  from  the  river  holds  the  pack  off,  and  all 
the  ice  in  that  vicinity  is  new  ice  formed  every  fall.  This  ice  conunences 
to  break  about  May  20,  and  by  June  1  it  begins  to  thaw  aud  the  rivers 
commence  running. 

The  pack  breaks  off  frou)  -lune  5-15,  aud  the  shore  ice  leaves  Jidy  1. 
Northerly  winds  may  hold  it  in  sight  of  the  land  for  a  few  days,  but  by 
July  15  it  is  out  of  sight.  This  occurs  every  summer,  and  the  line  of 
demarcation  between  dear  water  and  drift  ice,  bearing  to  the  northward 
of  llerschcl  island,  is  very  pronounced.  The  natives  report  that  this 
clear  water  extends  of!'  shore  every  summer  50  or  (JO  miles  to  the  east- 
ward of  the  Mackenzie;  river. 

At  llerschcl  island  there  is  a  perceptible  tidal  flow,  the  marks  oil  the 
beach  iiulicating  a  rise  and  fall  of  from  2  to  ;3  feet. 

l''rom  .luly  15  until  SeptcMd)er  1,  Mackenzie;  bay  is  clear  of  ice,  then 
young  m)  forms,  gradually  increasing  in  thickness,  aud  breaking  up  and 


I 


I> 


I'lin 


18 

moviiif;  of!"  with  variahli!  winds.  By  Scptemlwr  20,  it  forniH  to  2  or  3 
inches  in  thicknesH,  aiid  by  (Jettjhcr  1-6  everything  is  frozen  solid  for 
the  winter. 

Northern  limit  of  southern  edge  of  the  pack. — During  the  latter 
part  of  August  and  the  hcginuiiig  of  SepttMuher  the  Houthern  edge  of 
the  pack  reaches  its  nortiiern  limit,  the  sea  to  th(!  southward  being  clear 
of  ice,  excepting  occasional  small  drifting  floes.  The  general  line  of  the 
pack  is  from  point  Barrow,  on  the  east  side,  to  cape  North,  on  the  west 
side,  and  is  very  irregular  between  these  points,  varying  greatly  during 
different  seasons. 

The  annexed  tracing  shows  the  etlge  of  the  pack  as  foiuid  for  the  last 
five  ycjirs  and  for  1871).  From  it  we  see  that  the  northern  limit  of  the 
"Hole"  in  the  vicinity  of  Herald  island  is,  approximately,  the  same, 
while  to  the  eastward  different  seasons  vary  as  much  as  150  miles  in 
latitude.  In  1879,  ley  cape  was  the  northern  limit  of  the  eastern  end, 
and,  this  being  a  very  closed  sejison,  the  pack  was  little  broken;  1880 
shows  an  open  season,  and  1888  is  a  good  example  of  the  irregular  line 
of  the  pack.  Post-Oftice  point  is  found  varying  in  longitude  from  163° 
W.  to  168  W.,  and  in  latitude  from  70°  55'  N.  to  71°  30'  N.  It  shifts 
its  position  during  the  same  season. 

Fall  movements  of  the  ice  in  the  Arctic  ocean. — Young  ice  forms 
earlier  to  the  eastward  than  to  the  westward,  and  to  the  eastward  can.be 
seen  as  early  as  August  15,  making  in  a  thin  skim  between  broken  and 
floe  ice  on  culm  nights  and  disappearing  in  the  daytime.  By  Sej)tember 
1,  it  forms  to  a'l  inch  in  thickness,  and  after  September  20,  it  forms 
rapidly. 

The  prevailing  winds  are  northerly  after  the  first  week  in  September, 
and  soon  bring  the  pack  down  to  the  eastward  of  point  Barrow.  As 
soon  as  this  fall  movement  (commences  vessels  should  proceed  to  the 
westward  of  the  point  at  once.  As  a  general  rule,  the  steamers  return 
to  point  Barrow  by  Se})tember  10.  In  1888,  which  was  a  very  open 
year,  the  steamer  Orca  came  out  from  the  eastward  September  20,  but 
this  was  unusually  late,  the  latest  on  record. 

Sailing  vessels  cruising  along  the  ice  pack  generally  leave  point  Bar- 
row for  the  westward  August  15-25,  and  steamers  September  10. 

In  the  vicinity  of  ])oint  Barrow  young  ice  begins  to  form  around 
heavy  ice  Scjitember  15,  and  by  September  22  it  forms  in  open  water, 
making  rapidly  along  the  beach  after  September  25.  By  this  time  the 
pack  moves  close  inshore,  scattering  ice  being  found  along  the  beach 


illilill 


19 


Is  U}  2  or  .'} 
|ii  solid  for 

the  latter 
Ini  edge  of 
[being  cleiir 
line  of  the 
|)ii  the  west 
itly  during 

for  the  last 

iniit  of  the 

,  the  same, 

0  miles  in 

iastern  end, 

ken;  1886 

•egidar  line 

from  163° 

It  shifts 

g  ice  forms 
viin]  can.be 
broken  and 
September 
0,  it  forms 

September, 
rrow.  As 
eed  to  the 
ers  return 
very  open 
)er  20,  but 

[)oint  Bur- 
10. 

m  around 
pen  water, 
H  time  the 
the  beach 


about  Septcral)cr  10.     The  young  ice  maken  out  to  the  pack  September 
30,  and  then  the  ice  is  in  for  the  winter. 

From  October  1  until  December  1,  the  pacik  is  contimudly  coming  in 
and  moving  off,  from  1  mile  to  out  of  sight.  Young  ice  forms  in  the 
space  thus  made,  which  grinds  and  piles  on  the  beac^h  upon  tlu;  return  of 
the  pack.  After  December  1,  the  ice  makes  fast  to  the  bottom  and  stoj)s 
grinding  on  the  beach;  a  Holid,  stationary  mass,  which  is  termed  the 
"flaw,"  extending  from  4  to  8  miles  offshore.  On  the  edge  of  this 
flaw  the  pack  continues  to  grind  and  pile,  at  intervals  all  winter,  being 
set  in  by  northwest  gales,  and  olV  by  northeast  gales.  During  these 
offsets  it  moves  from  1  mile  to  out  of  sight,  and  remains  open  from  one 
to  fifleen  days,  according  to  the  duration  of  the  prevailing  gales.  When 
these  movements  occur  the  pack  goes  in  a  body  with  the  current.  The 
curniut  in  the  winter  sets,  as  it  does  in  summer,  to  the  northward  during 
southerly  and  easterly  winds,  and  to  the  southward  with  northerly  and 
westerly  winds,  except  that  it  changes  oftcner,  generally  running  three 
days  each  way,  there  seldom  being  forty-eight  consecutive  hours  without 
any  current. 

The  pack  shuts  down  on  Icy  caj>e  by  November  1,  and  afUn*  that  time 
tlusre  is  no  open  water  between  point  Jiarrow  arid  Icy  cape,  excejjt  when 
the  Haw  opens.  During  (closed  seasons  these  times  may  vary,  but  the 
above  dates  indicate  the  average  season. 

I  may  here  mention  a  peculiar  case  of  drift,  which  occurred  in  the 
winter  of  1888-'8{),  which  illustrates  how  the  pack  in  this  vicinity  is 
constantly  in  motion  all  winter,  and  what  different  dir(!ctions  it  takes. 
On  August  3,  1888,  during  a  heavy  southwest  gale  at  point  liarrow,  the 
bark  Younr/  Phanix  lost  her  rudder  and  anchors  and  drifted  oil'  into  the 
pa(^k  and  w^s  abandoned.  She  wjus  set  off  to  the  eastward  and  was  last 
seen  that  fall  35  miles  to  the  northward  and  eastward  of  Return  reef 
September  11.  She  was  next  sighte<l  and  boarded  on  July  9,  1889, 
about  8  miles  to  the  southward  of  cape  Smyth,  being  found  firndy  fixed 
in  the  middle  of  a  floe  2  miles  in  diameter.  From  there  she  was  set  off 
and  disaj)peared  to  the  northward  I'lid  westward.  What  her  track  was 
during  the  winter  is  a  subject  of  conjecture. 

Off  shore  and  to  the  westward,  in  the  vicinity  of  Herald  island  and 
Herald  shoal,  the  movements  of  the  pack  to  the  southward  are  very 
uncertain  after  September  20,  and  are  due  altogether  to  the  winds. 
Strong  northeast  winds  produce  a  current  to  the  southwest  which  car- 
ries the  pack  to  the  southward,  and  the  loose  ice  to  the  southwest, 
where  it  is  set  south  along  the  edge  of  the  western  pack.     Strong  north- 


West  wiiula  onrry  tho  floe  ice  townnls  tlio  strnits,  i-losinjj  on  lH)lh  slioros 
nhoiit  alike. 

Young  ico  commenroH  to  form  to  a  thickness  (if  an  incli  or  more;  during 
the  last  week  in  ScplcinluT,  and  it  is  not  safe  for  a  vesM-l  to  he  north  of 
Herahl  shoal  after  ()(;tol»er  1.  Alter  that  (kite,  arms  of  the  pack  are 
liuhle  to  swing  togethei'  and  imprison  a  vessel  ;  or  Iooh'  H(K'  ice,  which 
was  navigahle  during  the  day,  will  In'oome  so  firndy  tixe<l  with  young 
ice  in  a  single  night  as  to  render  it  unnavigahle  even  for  stenmera. 

Instances  of  these  kinds  occurred  in  IHSH  and  1S79.  In  tlu'  former 
ease  (see  traciing),  thirteen  vessels  were  crinsing  in  the  vicinity  of  Herald 
island  until  Septend)er  27,  1888,  when  heing  wariu-*!  I)y  the  "icehlink" 
that  the  pack  was  closing  to  the  southward,  they  prowetknl  s(»iith  thnuigh 
a  narrow  gap,  and  found  that  they  were  shut  in,  what  they  had  thought 
to  b(!  clear  water  to  the  southward  (»uly  proving  to  l>e  another  hole. 
The  ice  was  heavy  fhx!  ice,  frozen  together  hy  young  ice,  and  would 
have  been  impenetrable  had  not  an  unusual  event  cxvnrred  for  that  sea- 
son of  the  year,  in  the;  shape  of  a  southerly  jrale,  which  broke  it  up. 
This  was  followed  almost  immediately  by  a  strong  northwest  gale,  and 
selecting  the  weakest  point  of  the  pack,  the  vessels  n)anaged,  by  ciirry- 
ing  on  sail,  to  forc(!  their  way  out  in  the  latitude  of  Hendd  shoal,  longi- 
tude 175°  W.,  on  Se|)tember  ,'>().  The  tracing  shows  that  the  arm  of 
the  pack, which  was  found  extending  to  fhe  sonthwanl  Scptend)er  l.'{, 
nuist  have  swung  to  the  westward  with  northeJLst  winds,  and  joining 
with  the  western  pack,  formed  a  double  hole,  enclosing  the  vessels. 

The  other  case  in  which  vessels  were  shut  in,  in  this  vicinity,  was  in 
1879.  The  barks  Mt.  WoUaston  and  Vif/ilant  were  htst  seen  to  the 
northward  and  eastward  of  Herald  island  (October  10,  and  were  carrifnl 
off  in  the  pack,  all  hands  being  lost.  Whether  they  were  sjuit  in  by  the 
pack  or  by  young  ice  is  uid<nown. 

After  September  2(5,  young  ice  forms  rapidly  near  Herald  shoal,  and 
after  October  1-5,  during  calm  nights  or  light  northerly  winds,  it  forms 
in  thickness  of  from  1  to  (5  inches  in  a  single  night.  Being  tem))ted 
by  a  scarcity  of  large  ice  during  some  seasons  to  remain  in  that  vicnnity 
a  little  later,  vessels  sometimes  remain  as  late  as  Octolwr  10,  or  even 
later,  but  at  times  with  disastrous  results. 

An  instance  of  this  occurred  in  1871),  when,  on  the  night  of  October 
18,  the  barks  Moxury  and  Helen  Mar,  having  worketl  clejii  of  tloe  ice 
into  open  water,  were  shut  in  by  young  ice;  it  formal  so  raj>idly  that 
after  it  had  been  decided  to  abandon  the  weaker  vess<?l,  loads  of  a  ton 
weight  was   dragged  over   the  ice  by  parties  of  fifteen  men,  and  the 


i 


i 


.1 

•'I 


|l»<»tli  sljoroH 

liiorc!  (lining 
'«'  nortli  of 
lie  jcK'k  an; 
|<'  i«'(',  wliicli 
Iwifli  y(»iiiig 

lllRTS. 

|»  du'  former 
>•<>«■  Hcnild 
"Ice  Mink" 

iitli  lliroiijrii 

i;i(l    (ll(H|(r|i( 

utiUvv  hole. 

and  would 

for  that  sca- 

>rok<'  i(   up, 

'^t  pilo,  and 

<1,  In  ciirry- 

lioal,  lorijri- 

tJi(!  arm  of 

|)t('ml)('r   !,'{, 

and 

L'S.SC'1.S, 


joining 


•i(y,  was  in 
seen  <o  the 
vera  eariied 
lit  in  by  tJio 

I  slioal,  and 
lis,  it  forniH 
ng  tempted 
lat  vi(!inity 
0,  or  even 

of  October 
of  floe  ice 
i]>i(lly  that 
■i  of  a  ton 
n,  and  the 


I /r/ca  Afar  im\y  HWOccvAvi]  in  gefting  through  the  HlraitH,  NovemlM'r  1, 
by  carrying  royals  during  a  close;  reef  gale,  and  driving  throiu;h  the 
<|iiickly  forming  ice  at  the  rate  of  i  knot  per  lionr. 

These  inslaiuscH  show  that  young  lee  is  more  diinger<tiis  in  the  late  fall 
than  the  movenients  of  the  solid  pack,  and  the  limit  of  safety  for  vesselH 
(wniHin;;  in  this  vicinity  is  October  1,  at  Herald  sIkkiI.  After  that  time 
they  shonld  work  ^tea^lily  (o  the  southward. 

A  vessel  once  caught  in  the  ]>a(k  in  this  vicinity  i.s  carried  off  to  ihe 
n<»rlliward  and  westward,  and  if  i-^  only  a  rpicstion  of  time  when  she  will 
be  broken  Up  iuid  slink  l>y  the  working  and  grinding  of  the  ice. 

Ill  longitude  170"  W.,  the  main  pack  seldom  comes  in  a  bctdy  below 
latitude  f)!)*^  S.,  but  vessels  coming  south  in  the  late  liill  usually  en- 
coiiutcr  heavy  flow  ice  Ix'tween  cape  lS<!rdze,  on  the  Siberian  shore,  an<l 
p(»int  Hope,  on  the  Alaska  shore.  The  northeasterly  and  northerly 
w  iiids  drive  th(;  loose  ficK!  ice  from  the  edge  of  the  pack  along  the  western 
pack  and  down  (tu  \\\o  Siberian  shore.  Jiere  it  takes  a  turn  to  the  south- 
cast  and  follows  the  shore,  in  a  southeasterly  current  thus  made,  until  it 
nache.s  cape  Scrdze,  where  it  is  deflected  off  to  the  eastward  toward 
pciiiit  Hope,  where  the  current  turns  it  t<i  the  northward. 

This  accumulation  continues  increasing  during  the  fiill  until  young 
i(;e  gets  too  heavy  to  allow  the  floe  ice  to  !)<■  inlhuineed  by  the  wind. 
It  banks  heavily  on  the  Siberian  shore,  and  when  met  by  vessels  bound 
to  fh(!  southward,  is  only  avoided  by  working  to  th(!  eastward,  vessels 
sometimes  having  to  pass  very  close  to  ])oint  Hope,  and,  in  a  lew  eases, 
well  in  toward  Kotzebiie  sound,  to  pass  around  and  get  to  the  south- 
ward of  it. 

Vessels  bound  south  from  Herald  shoal,  steer  to  make  a  landfall  at 
ca])e  liisbiirne  or  point  Hopi ,  in  order  to  set  a  course  for  the  straits  and 
maki'  use  of  soundings,  and  by  so  doing  they  generally  avoid  this 
accumulation  of  heavy  ice.  Strong  northerly  gales  drive  this  loose  ice 
down  in  the  vicinity  of  the  straits,  northeasterly  gales  banking  the  west 
side,  ;ind  northwesorly  gales  both  sides  alike. 

In  the  vicinity  O'  cape  Sabine,  young  ice  commenees  to  make  October 
10-20.  It  moves  off  and  on  with  southerly  and  northerly  winds,  the 
current  rapidly  changing  its  direction  with  shifting  gales,  until  the  early 
l)art  of   flaniiarv,   when   it   beeonvs  fixed  to  the  shore  and  remains  so 


mtil  it  breaks  ui)  in  the  snrinsr 


^pri 


At  jioint  Ho|)e  the  ice  forms  in  the  lagoons  about  September  25,  but 
young  ice  in  the  ocean  is  as  late  forming  as  October  12,  being  heavy  by 
October  25.    • 


'!|'!|1 


22 

All  the  ice  in  this  viciuity,  in  sight  from  the  shore,  is  made  up  of 
young  ice,  which  telescopes  and  piles  until  it  forms  heavy  floes,  the  gaps 
freezing  over  with  young  ice  and  forming  heavy  pack  ice  by  early  spring. 
Occasionally  a  few  scattering  floes  of  old  ice  are  drifted  into  this  vicinity 
and  held  by  the  young  ice,  but  as  a  rule  it  is  all  new  ice. 

Under  the  cliffs  between  cape  Lisburne  and  point  Hope,  temperate 
springs  exist  which  cut  away  the  sea  ice  and  keep  a  place  of  open  water 
all  winter. 

Kotzebue  sound  freezes  over  and  is  closed  to  navigation  by  October 
10-15. 

Pall  movements  of  the  ice  in  Bering  straits. — The  regular  set  of 
the  current  in  Bering  straits  in  the  fiill  is  northerly,  being  stronger  on 
the  ea.st  side;  but,  the  jjrovailing  gales  at  this  season  being  northerly,  a 
change  in  the  direction  of  the  current  to  the  southward  is  more  common 
than  in  the  spring.  Northwest  gales  drive  the  loose  ice  down  into  the 
straits  on  both  sides  alike,  but  vessels  leaving  Herald  shoal  October  1, 
afler  passing  the  ice  between  cape  Serdze  and  point  Hoi)e,  seldom  find 
enough  heavy  ice  in  the  straits  to  retard  their  progress  south.  More  ice 
is  found  on  the  east  than  the  west  side,  but  the  east  side  is  preferred  on 
account  of  the  contour  of  the  bottom  being  better  suited  for  soundings 
in  thick  weather. 

An  instance  of  the  strong  southerly  current  which  is  found  existing  in 
the  straits  afler  a  protracted  northwest  gale  is  given  b}'^  a  whaling  captain. 
While  running  from  cape  Sordze  to  make  the  JDiomedes,  he  raised  King's 
island  instead;  thinking  it  was  the  Diomcdes,  he  swung  off  to  the  south- 
ward, and,  when  he  had  run  up  his  distance  for  King's  island,  found 
himself  off  northeast  cape  of  St.  Lawrence  island.  This  instance  shows, 
conclusively,  a  southeast  cuirrent  on  the  Siberian  coast  and  a  southerly 
current  in  the  straits. 

All  vessels,  steamers  or  sailing  vessels,  should  be  out  of  the  Artstic  by 
October  10.  Cases  have  occurred  in  late  seasons  where  vessels  have  vol- 
untarily been  as  late  as  October  23  passing  through  the  straits;  or,  in 
the  case  of  the  Ildcn  Mar,\x\  1879,  until  November  1 ,  at  which  tune 
she  forced  her  way  through  rapidly  forming  ice  with  great  difficulty ; 
but  October  10  is  as  late  as  safety  will  permit  of  a  vessel  being  north  of 
Bering  sea.  After  that  time  the  ice  forms  and  banks  in  the  straits 
rapidly,  alternately  being  solid  across  and  then  breaking  up  in  leads  and 
holes. 

During  these  periods  of  solid  ice  the  natives  coramunicattj  across  it 
from  cape  Prince  of  Wales  to  East  cape.     Such  trips  are  always  acconi- 


. 


iL».. 


23 


;1 


made  up  of 
es,  the  gaps 
arly  spring, 
lis  vicinity 


;,  temperate 
open  water 

by  October 

gular  set  of 
stronger  on 
northerly,  a 
)re  common 
wn  into  the 

October  1, 

seldom  find 

More  ice 

•referred  on 

soundings 

existing  in 
ng  caj)tain. 
ised  King's 

the  south- 
and,  found 
nice  shows, 
I  southerJy 

i  Arctic  by 
have  vol- 
lits;  or,  in 
t'hich  tune 
difficulty; 
^  nortii  of 
he  straits 
leads  and 

3  across  it 
^'s  ac(!om- 


panied  with  much  danger,  but  are  accoiuplished  by  the  Prince  of  Wales 
natives  making  a  forced  march  to  the  "Little"  Diomede,  where  they 
meet  the  natives  of  the  "Big"  Diomede,  who  have  in  turn  been  visited 
by  the  natives  from  East  cape.     These  trips  are  made  annually. 

Fall  movements  of  the  ice  in  Bering  sea. — In  the  northern  part  of 
Bering  sea  young  ice  commences  to  form  in  small  ciuanlities  in  the  bays 
and  along  the  shore,  about  October  15,  as  far  south  as  Indian  point.  In 
St.  Lawrence  bay,  after  October  25,  when  the  northerly  winds  preva'l^  it 
forms  quite  solid  along  the  shore,  while  it  still  remains  not  solid  enough 
to  travel  on  in  deep  water.  In  1881  it  remained  in  this  condition  until 
November  31,  too  heavy  to  work  a  boat  through,  but  too  light  to  travel 
on,  when  in  one  night  it  froze  solid.  Very  few  pieces  of  old  ice  are 
seen,  the  whole  formation  being  young  ice  which  piles  into  heavy  masses. 

December  1,  the  ice  is  solid  for  the  winter,  the  pack  breaking  off  from 
(5  to  8  miles  off  shore,  with  shifting  winds,  until  the  spring  southerly 
winds  start  it  north.  When  the  pack  comes  in  at  these  times  it  forces 
the  ice  up  20  and  30  feet,  forming  hummocks  of  heavy  ice.  Off  shore 
young  ice,  of  sufficient  thickness  to  impede  and  perhaps  prevent  a 
steamer's  progress,  forms  from  November  1-15,  and  at  St.  Lawrence 
island  Novembe**  25. 

On  the  east,  side  of  Bering  sea,  in  Norton  sound,  and  in  the  vicinity 
of  St.  Michaels,  young  ice  forms  in  small  (piantities  October  12-18,  and 
by  October  25-2H  is  strong  enough  to  travel  on.  It  forms  for  a  "full 
due"  for  the  winter  between  November  1-10,  and  St.  Michaels  is  con- 
sidered (ilosed  to  navig'ition  for  the  winter  after  October  15. 

All  the  ice  found  in  Norton  sound  is  made  up  of  young  ice,  which 
forms  every  fall  and  entirely  disappears  during  the  following  summer. 

The  ice  continues  to  form,  extending  farther  and  farther  to  the  south- 
ward, breaking  up,  piling,  and  telescoping  with  variable  winds  and  cui'- 
rent«,  and  so  forms  the  Bering  sea  pack,  which  has  its  limit,  as  a  solid 
mass,  a  little  to  the  southward  of  St.  Matthew  island.  To  the  south- 
ward of  that,  the  ice  found  consists  of  detached  floes,  which  are  driven 
off  from  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  on  the  Alaska  side. 

At  Pribyloff'  islands  it  takes  fully  three  weeks  of  iKtrtheasterly  winds 
to  drive  the  ice  down  on  the  islands,  a  northwest  wind  I)eiiig  "ina(;com- 
panietl  by  ice.  This  ice  is  looked  for  during  (lie  latter  part  of  December 
or  early  January,  and  is  continually  in  motion,  with  variable  winds, 
being  much  broken  up. 

Some  years  the  islands  are  free  of  ice. 


'  .w. 


•    ■  ill 


The  farthest  south  the  lee  has  ever  been  known  to  extend  is  Akoutan 
pass,  and  this  occurred  about  January  15,  1878,  when  it  only  remained 
a  few  days. 

In  order  to  ilhistratc  the  comparative  dan<^erof  the  ice  in  the  diiferent 
localities,  I  give  the  following  list  of  ciisualties  which  have  occurred 
from  the  ice  during  the  last  ten  years,  which  list  was  furnished  uw  l)y 
Mr.  J.  W.  Kelly.  Fro.n  it  we  see  that  the  great  majority  of  casualties 
have  '  jcurred  in  the  fall,  by  reason  of  the  vessels  endeavoring  to  remain 
too  long  in  the  Arctic  before  starting  to  the  southward. 

BERING   SEA    (sPKING), 

1882:  Bark  8appho  stove  and  sunk  off  cape  Navarin. 

1885:  April  15,  bark  Uahihow  stove  and  sunk  off  cape  Navarin. 
May  5,  bark  Napoleon  stove  and  sunk  off  cape  Navarin.  May  25,  bark 
Gazelle  stove  and  sunk  to  the  southward  of  St.  Lawrence  island, 
attempting  to  ride  out  a  gale  betwc  i  two  ice  floes.  Bark  Eliza  stove 
off  St.  Lawrence  island  and  repaired.  Bark  Dawn  stove  off  St.  Law- 
rence island  and  repaired. 

188(5:  Bark  John  Carver  stove  and  sunk.  Schooner  Page  stove,  con- 
demned and  sent  to  San  Francisco. 

1889:  JJark  Ladoga  stove  off  cape  Navarin  and  sent  to  San  Francisco. 
Bark  Ohio  (2d)  stove  and  sunk  off  Nunivak  island. 

ARCTIC   OCEAN    (sUMJMOR). 

1881  :  Daniel  Webster  crushed  5  miles  south  of  ))oint  Barrow,  befwoen 
pack  and  shore  ice,  while  [)ushing  ahead  of"  the  whaling  fleet. 

1882  :  Steamer  Norlh  >Sfar  crushed  l)etween  the  pack  and  flaw,  in  siglit 
of  and  to  the  soutliward  of  Cape  Smyth  station. 

1883:  Jiark  John  llowland,  stove  off  point  Lay,  was  abandoned  and 
set  on  fire  at  i)()int  Hope. 

1884:  Steamer  i>o?r/i<v/(7  crushed  l)et\veen  two  floes  between  Icy  cape; 
and  point  lielcher.     No  fires  lighted. 

1887:  Bark  }far}i  and  SuMtn,  stove  off  cape  Lisbuine,  repaired. 
Bark  Hunter,  stove  off  Icy  c;ipe,  repaired. 

,         ,  ARCTIC   Oi  EAN    (fAI,l).  .     ,. 

1871  :  Thirty-one  vessels  shut  in  and  abandoned  off  point  Belcher. 

1870:  Thirteen  vessels  caught  of  Sea  Horse  islands,  were  drifted  (o 
the  northward  and  eastward  of  poinf  I'arrow  and  w<'re  abandoned. 

187!):  IJarks  Mt.  WoHaxhtH  and  I'igilaitl  carrieil  otf  in  (he  pjick  to 
the  northward  and  eastward  of  Herald  islanil ;  were  Ia.st  seen  October 


15. 


i 
I 


iwaaaBPXCKonMH 


25 


s  Akoiitan 
remained 

le  (lifrerent 

e  occurred 

led  nu'  by 

casualties 

to  remain 


3  Navarin. 
y  25,  1, :,,•!< 
ice  island, 
J^J/irji  stove 
Y  iSt.  Law- 


stovo,  COIl- 


I  Francisco. 

w,  between 
iw,  in  sigiit 
idoned  and 

II  I<'y  cape 
,   repaired. 


15.  Bark  Mercury  frozen  in  and  abandoned  off*  Herald  shoal  October 
18.  Barks  Mabel  and  Eliza  shnt  in  off  point  Beldier  September  15. 
The  Mabel  was  abandoned,  the  Eliza's  crew  divided  on  both  ships,  a 
norther  l)roke  up  the  ice,  and  they  brought  out  both  ships. 

1883:  Baik  Abraham  Barker  lost  her  rudder  by  boing  forced  ashore 
by  tiie  pack  on  point  Barrow.  Bark  Ifary  arid  Siusan  stove  and  aban- 
doned off  Herald  island. 

1885:  Schooner  Clara  Light,  September  14,  while  being  towed  from 
poirt  Barrow  by  steamer  Alliance,  was  cut  down  and  sunl:  by  young  ice. 

1888:  Barks  Fleetwiny,  Young  Phivnix  and  Mary  and  Susan  wrecked 
on  the  bar  and  in  the  ice  at  point  Barrow  in  a  gale  August  5,  and  aban- 
doned. Schooner  Jane  Gray  lost  anchors  and  stove  by  the  ice  in  gale 
oH' point  Barrow,  August  5;  drifted  60  miles  to  northward  and  eastward 
of  the  point,  and  was  found  capsized  by  U.  S.  S.  Thetis;  raised  and 
repaired.     Schooner  Iiio  driven  ashore  by  gale  and  ice  at  cape  Smyth. 

herixct  sea  (fall). 

1885:  Bark  Amethyst  missing;  supposed  to  have  been  seen  from 
l*ribyloff  islands.  A  vessel  is  reported  to  have  been  sighted  from  cape 
Lisburne  in  young  ice  October  18. 

This  list  does  not  contain  all  the  wrecks  which  have  taken  place  in 
these  waters,  but  simply  those  which  have  been  caused  by  the  ice  alone. 

The  compass  directions  of  currents,  winds,  bearings,  &c.,  given  in  this 
report  are  magnetic. 

In  ray  opinion,  all  vessels  entering  the  Arctic  ocean  and  working  the 
ice  for  a  season,  should  be  provisioned  and  prepared  to  spend  at  least  one 
winter  there,  on  account  of  the  uncertainty  of  ice  navigation. 

In  concluding  this  report,  I  can  only  state  tiiat  the  dates  given  are  as 
close  approximations  as  I  could  make,  as  different  seasons  vary  greatly. 
In  fact,  the  only  point  I  have  had  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  a  general 
agreement  on  from  all  parties  interviewed  is  the  fact  that  "No  two 
seasons  are  alike  in  the  Arctic." 

EDWARD  SIMPSON, 

Ensign,  U.  S.  Navy. 


ix'iciicr. 
drifted   to 
•lied. 

c  pack  to 
n  October 


